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Section One / The Early Years
 
From Down Under
Just Call It "eucalyptus"
Eucalyptus Discovered
Noted Writers and Authorities
"California Here I Come!"
Who Was Really First?
Interest Continues
To the End of the Century
From Rags to Riches Maybe?
The Doldrums
Renewed Interest 
 

Section  Two / Physical Properties and Uses

Physical Properties
Identification
Climate
Drought
Frost
Soils
Seeds
Young Plants
Strength
Foliage
Flowers
Bark, Trunk, and Roots
Cropping Back
The Multiplicity of Uses
As Forest Cover
For Firewood and Biomass Fuel
As Windbreaks
As Timber
As Posts, Pilings, Poles, and Railroad Ties
Uses As Hardwood
It Should Be Well-Seasoned
For Pulp, Paper, and Fibreboard
As a Boiler Cleaner
A Source of Honey
A Source of Food
As Medicine
Fighting Malaria
For Landscaping and Roadways
 
 

Section Three / Problems, Care, Economics and Species

A Fire Hazard?
Beetle Problem
Love or Hate and the Ecological Question
Planting and Care
Individual Trees, Groves, and Plantations
Economics
So Many Eucalyptus Species
Finis 

Notes 

Bibliography
 

FROM DOWN UNDER IT CAME
 
While traveling along the roads and highways of California, especially along  its coast and inland valleys, one will see the usual oak, pine, and scrubbrush. Yet there is another member of the plant family whose presence is dominating and charismatic. Its size is lofty; its silhouette captivating; its smell clean and antiseptic like the scent unfurling from a medicine cabinet. Many think it is a California native, but it is not. It is really an immigrant from Australia that arrived as many immigrants have in this wonderful country, surreptitiously.
 
It is the remarkable eucalyptus of which we speak that came from the virgin forests of that vast land down under, Australia. It is as curious as that land with its pouched animals and mysterious aborigines. Its adaptability and its hardiness can be seen in its groves which cling to the California hillsides and fill the crevices of the landscape. It is difficult to imagine what California would look like without the seemingly omnipresent eucalyptus.
 
It has had a checkered history though in California. At first it was a tree of promise stirring the imagination, and then later becoming a tree of disappointment and ultimately disdain. In its homeland of Australia, it was a true friend to the settler supplying material for a pioneer's needs. Its almost mythical reputation came with the Australians to the California goldfields and with the American travelers who had seen the colossus in Australia.
 
In Australia, the eucalyptus has been the tree of folklore where children sing of the "kookaburra in the gum tree." Where also children and aborigines, enjoy the sweet flakes of the manna gum. Medicine is found in its oils which has been used to cure everything from an upset stomach to a nasty laceration. Doctors and primitive cultures have both used it as a healer. The eucalyptus provided the early Australian settler materials for buildings, implements, and desperately-needed fuel. Its powers, its versatility was virtually unchallenged by anything else on the Australian continent.
 
The purpose of this study is to tell the story of this amazing tree and its impact on California. There is an array of literature, both scientific and historical, that gives only segments of the story. This study is an attempt to fashion those segments into a tailored narrative that has clarity and imparts information to the reader. It is by no means comprehensive. The focus is on important facts, major personalities, and key issues. The documentation is provided for further research and study of this fascinating immigrant tree.
 

JUST CALL IT "EUCALYPTUS"
 
This writer has chosen, as others have, to use the word "eucalyptus" to refer to this genus. In scientific literature, the first letter is normally capitalized. It is some- times referred to as "eucalypts" to break away from the scientific form and to give it a more common-appearing name. This really hasn't stuck, but it is still seen in the literature. Also in this study, the writer has chosen, as others have, not to refer to eucalyptus species by their full scientific name, such as, "E. globulus" or "Eucalyptus globulus." Instead, the "E" or "Eucalyptus" is dropped, and the name merely becomes "globulus."
 

EUCALYPTUS DISCOVERED
 
The first time that the eucalyptus tree appeared in recorded history was in Abel Janszoon Tasman's journal during his voyage of exploration. In his journal entry for December 2, 1642, at the island of Tasmania, which was named after him, a reconnaissance party reported back that they had  " . . . seen two trees about 2 1/2 fathoms in  thickness, and they measured from 60-65 ft. from the ground to the lower branches . . . " They were intrigued by the gum that was secreting from the trees and brought back samples to show others.1
 
The eucalyptus tree next appeared in William Dampier's 1688 journal written at Brunswick Bay, New South Wales. He wrote, "Most of the trees we saw are dragon trees as we supposed; and these too are the  largest trees any where. They are the bigness for our large apple trees and about  the same height; the rind is blackish and somewhat rough. The leaves are of dark colour; the Gum distils out of the knots or cracks that are in the bodies of  the trees." 2
 
Captain James Cook was the next writer to make reference to the eucalyptus. He wrote on May 6, 1770 at Botany Bay, "We found 2 sorts of Gum one sort of which is like the Gum Dragon and is the same as I suppose Tasman took for gum lac, it is extracted from the largest tree in the woods." Writing in August 1770, botanist Joseph Banks, who was  with Cook at the time, too referred to a "dragon" tree,
 
The one tree tolerably large with narrow leaves not unlike a willow which was in  every place in which we went . . . resembling Sanguis Draconis . . . this I should  suppose to be the gum mentioned by Dampier . . . also that Tasman  saw . . . 3
 
There was a tree, Dracena draco or dragon tree, found on both the Madeiras and the Canary Islands that secreted gum. It would appear that the explorers most certainly had this tree in mind when comparing it to the eucalyptus.
 
The gum the eucalyptus secretes provides natural protection against insects because it literally drowns the menacing pests. Both Tasman and Dampier did in fact accurately identify this ecological secretion as "gum." But it was Captain Arthur Phillip who first used gum in reference to a type of tree. In a letter dated May 15, 1788 from Sydney, he wrote, "What seeds could be collected are sent to Sir Joseph Banks, as likewise the red gum taken from the large gum-tree by tapping."4
 In his travels, Banks collected plant specimens, marked them, brought them to England and stored them away to identify later. The eucalyptus specimens remained untouched until a French botanist visiting England had the opportunity to view them. Charles Louis L'Heritier de Brutelle poured over the specimens and chose the scientific name of "Eucalyptus" which is a concoction of two Greek words: "eu" which means "well" and "kalypto" which means "I cover." The cover refers to the lid or operculum which hides the flower until it is thrown off to allow the flower to bloom.5

 The operculum shape is different for each eucalyptus species, and this shape determines the second half of its scientific name. For example, the blue gum's scientific name is E. globulus. "Globulus" describes the shape of the operculum area which resembles a coat button, round or globe-like. It was another French botanist, Jacques-Julien Houtou de la Billardiere, who in 1791 fully identified the blue gum and assigned it its complete scientific name which is has been used since. In fact, Billardiere, while visiting Tasmania, was one of the first to refer to the genus as "Eucalyptus" in the written word. He lamented, "I have not yet been able to produce flowers of a new species of Eucalyptus."6
 
Eucalyptus is a large family having over 600 species growing in its native habitat of Australia. It is like the pouched mammals found there having a species for every climatic variable. There are small ones, large ones, bushy ones, and erect ones. One for every possibility. The eucalyptus species are grouped by common names mostly because non-scientists tend not to be very distinctive. After all, a tree is a tree and a bush is a bush. Australians group the eucalyptus into these common name categories: gum, mahogany, box, and stringybarks. Immediately one can see how really generic and unsophisticated these names are, but they do make clear enough statements as to physical appearance, and reveal how the untrained person views the species. Species of eucalyptus live in a vast array of local natural environments. Some are found in arid climates. Others prefer swampy conditions with its abundance of moisture. Some can exist in low temperatures while others will be burned by the frost. Some make there natural home in New Guinea, Timor, the Moluccas, and the Philippines besides Australia.7

The eucalyptus is a world traveler. It has been successfully grown on most every continent. Its fast growth, size, and beauty are attractive features persuading the interested to plant seed. It grows best in environmental conditions similar to those in its native habitat which is generally semi-tropical to semi-arid. The eucalyptus has served humankind in many ways. It has been used as fuel and as windbreaks to protect crops, farm animals, and buildings. Its oils have been extracted and used in medicine and in scented products. At one point in recent history, it thought to alter the local atmosphere making life healthier for the residents. In 1868, the renowned eucalyptus enthusiast from Australia, Baron Ferdinand von Mueller summed up the possibilities of the genus which lay worldwide, "This marvelous quickness of growth, combined with a perfect fitness to resist drought, has rendered many of our tree fame abroad -- especially so in countries  where the supply of fuel or of hard woods is not readily attainable, or where for  raising shelter . . . we probably possess the means of obliterating the rainless zones of  the globe, to spread . . . woods over our deserts, and thereby mitigate the distressing  drought and to annihilate perhaps even that occasionally excessive dry heat evolved by  the sun's rays from the naked ground throughout extensive regions of the interior . . .  affording shade and shelter, and retaining humidity to the soil, serve other great  purposes . . ." 8
 
Von Mueller is sometimes referred to as "the Prophet of the Eucalyptus" because of such exuberant predictions. Being a pragmatic scientist as well, he spoke on the eucalyptus' ability to stop soil erosion and soil shift. He described the method by which the roots decomposed rock creating better soil for crops. He also discussed the use of eucalyptus to halt malaria by disinfecting the air, and in the broader sense, to clean the air at large for healthier living.9 Eucalyptus was von Mueller's life which he avidly promoted worldwide in his writings and lectures.
 

NOTED WRITERS AND AUTHORITIES
 
After the British and French botanists of late 18th century had identified and recorded certain species, eucalyptus specialists emerged who were excited about the genus and saw great potential. One such person was von Mueller who was introduced above. He was the first of a line of "eucalyptologists" who wanted to spread the word about this (seemingly) miraculous tree. Baron von Mueller was German-born who moved to Australia in 1847. He became the botanist for Victoria in 1879 which was a position he held until 1884. He published Eucalyptographia, a ten volume work, which identifies 100 eucalyptus species. The encyclopedic work was the first to present the eucalyptus to the general reading public and to scientists as well. The massive tomes contained descriptions, illustrations, and enthusiastic commentary.10
 
Von Mueller studied and wrote about eucalyptus for over fifty years. He had twenty to thirty species to add to his published works, but he died before he could complete the effort.11 In 1902, there were only five copies of Eucalyptographia to be found in the United States.  Lectures and selected writings of von Mueller's were published by Ellwood Cooper in 1876 to insure that Californians became knowledgeable of eucalyptus. "The Prophet" proclaimed, "The eucalypts are destined to play a prominent part for all time to come in the sylvan culture of cast tracts of the globe."12

 In California, early on, there sprang up botanists and enthusiasts who introduced the general populace to eucalyptus and advanced subsequent efforts on its part.
One such person was Ellwood Cooper who came to California in 1870 and settled in the Santa Barbara area. He took early note of the eucalyptus species already growing there, and could see the potential of such a tree. He immediately bought land and planted eucalyptus groves covering some 200 acres. His groves became renowned for their beauty and lushness. This was said in 1904, "One can stroll through his groves as through primeval forests. In the canyons, Eucalypts twenty-five years old tower high above oaks . . . "13
 
In 1876, Cooper published Forest Culture and Eucalyptus Trees which included a lecture by Cooper, two lectures by von Mueller, a paper by von Mueller, a description of eucalyptus species by von Mueller, and a seed catalog. The intent of the publication was to provide Californians with information concerning the eucalyptus and to promote its growth in the state. It accurately states on the title page, "The only Complete and Reliable Work on the Eucalypti Published in the United States"  because it was that indeed.
 
Cooper was president of Santa Barbara College, a small private school. On the occasion of a library benefit, November 26, 1875, he delivered a stirring lecture on forests and spoke of his favorite tree, the eucalyptus. In his address, he argued that California, and alas, the world, needed the eucalyptus for the planet's well-being. He believed that a perfect climate could be generated by planting the right vegetation in the proper locales. To quote, he wanted to "moderate the winds, increase the rain, and we have perfection . . . How is this to be done? By planting forest trees."14
 
A successor to Cooper was Abbot Kinney of Los Angeles. He was chairman of the California Board of Forestry from 1886 to 1888 during which time he launched a program that resulted in the planting of thousands of eucalyptus. The forestry experimental station at Santa Monica was established by Kinney where he did many studies on 75 to 100 eucalyptus species. By 1910, he was by far the leading contemporary eucalyptologist who had published more than anyone else on the topic.15
 
Kinney had acquired wealth through tobacco interests and came to California in the late 1870's to invest this capital in land and agriculture. He knew Cooper and his work. He saw the extraordinary eucalyptus growing on Cooper's land. While chairman of the forestry board, he embarked on a program of distributing free eucalyptus seed and seedlings to interested growers.16 In 1895, he published his classic work, Eucalyptus, which became the bible for eucalyptus growers. It is a compendium of fact and information about all aspects of eucalyptus horticulture from discussing soils to which species to plant.
 
To gather information for his publication, Kinney linked up with a colleague, A.J. McClatchie. McClatchie had a very large microscope, and with it, along with two copies of von Mueller's Eucalyptographia, the two botanists traveled throughout California studying the eucalyptus.17  McClatchie later worked at the Arizona forestry experiment station in Phoenix, and published in 1902, Eucalypts Cultivated in the United States a scientific work rich in history and fact. At the turn of the century and shortly thereafter, there were eucalyptus specialists working at the various forestry stations and at the University of California experimental facilities, who published informative pamphlets through those governmental agencies. No research of eucalyptus horticulture would be complete without consulting those contributions. To name the more important authors: Charles Shinn, C.H. Sellers, George Lull, Louis Margolin, and Norman Ingham.

 Next on the eucalyptus scene was Woodbridge Metcalf. For over fifty years, he would dominate the field. He began his professional career in 1914 at the University of California, Berkeley where he taught forest botany, tree management and tree identification. In 1926, he became the first California Extention Forester who strongly advocated the usage of eucalyptus as windbreaks for citrus groves. Metcalf wrote and published essays, articles, and books on the Australian tree and other trees found in California. In 1956, he represented the United States at the FAO World Eucalyptus Conference held in Rome, Italy.18
 
One final figure to recognize is Max Watson. He was an extraordinary man with varied interests. He was originally from San Diego where he witnessed the eucalyptus boom early this century. It was a tree he simply grew to love as a boy tramping through the groves. As a young man, Watson opened a nursery in San Diego and planted many thousands of seedlings with his own hands. His  nursery business brought him to the San Joaquin Valley where he continued planting trees. He took a great interest in people especially those who needed help. In his lifetime, Watson was a social worker, probation officer, and vocational arts teacher. Through an agreement with California prison authorities, he was able to hire prisoners to work in his nurseries and plant trees. Watson retired to San Jose where he opened still another nursery and an arboretum.19
 

"CALIFORNIA, HERE I COME!"
 
The gold rush changed California in forever. The Mexican dons would begin to fade from the scene eventually being relieved of their ownership of vast land holdings. The California Indian, decimated by white man's disease, would continue to disappear and essentially melt into the surrounding society. Present was the onslaught of brash and arrogant Americans seeking fortune and bringing with them different ideas, a different philosophy, and a new way of life. Thousands of American gold seekers arrived in California with the sole idea of striking it rich and to return home with their newly found riches. However, many did stay and bought land or went into business. California was still their land of promise. Australians came too seeking wealth in the gold fields. These hardy and rough-hewed people were very similar to frontier Americans what with their maverick attitude and adventuring nature.
 
They packed up their belongings and boarded ships mostly constructed from blue gum timber. When they embarked from Sydney or Hobart Town, they brought with them a mental picture of their homeland's landscape. In California they saw barren hills and valleys. They could visualize how their lofty and majestic eucalyptus could change such a bleak picture.
 
California vegetation was indeed bleak with one exception being the pine forests which grew at the higher elevations. There too were a few oaks, willows, sycamores, and scrub brush growing on the hills and in the valleys at the lower elevations. But the desirable land was virtually treeless. The Franciscan missionaries brought with them trees to provide food, but these orchards were small, isolated, and located near the missions.
 
When California became a state in 1850, the citizens of Los Angeles needed to fly the stars and stripes, but they had no trees to construct for a flagpole. Indians were sent into the San Bernardino Mountains to chop down two pine trees and bring back so the American flag could fly over southern California.20
 
The trees near settlements were used immediately for fuel and construction of dwellings. Oakland was founded in 1850  in the midst of a forest of live oaks. Shortly this forest would vanish. Oakland also had a forest of redwoods covering five square miles. Two very tall trees in the forest were used by ships' captains to guide them through the Golden Gate sixteen miles at sea.21 This redwood forest was used in the construction of Mission San Jose22 and in the urban development of Oakland and San Francisco during the gold rush. By 1860, all the redwoods had vanished. Gone were the 300 foot giants that had once stood there.23
 
To the gold seekers and settlers, live trees did not have value in any permanent sense and were exploited at will. For example, miners cut down trees just to find straight ones to be used in their "toms" and sluices. Trees were used too as instant fuel for fires to cook over and to warm chilled bodies. The early California wheat farmers removed trees to clear fields for their crops.24
 
In 1863, John S. Hittel published Resources in California in which he described California's bare terrain. "The valleys are mostly bare of timber, with here and there a grove of oaks, and lines of trees and bushes along the water courses." In regard to Napa Valley and its surrounding hills, he said, " These mountains, brown near the foreground and  blue in the distance . . . "25 gives one a picture of bleakness.
 
Hittel writing again, "Most of the Sacramento and San Joaquin valleys, the Colorado Desert, the eastern slopes of the Coast Mountains, and the Coast Range south of latitude 35 degrees, are treeless."26 In his work The Natural Wealth of California, published in 1868, author Titus Fey Cronise gives this picture of Santa Barbara County: "There is but little timber in any part of the county, except oak, willows, and sycamore, which grow on the plains or in the valleys. The highest mountains being covered with grass or wild oats during the winter and spring . . . "27
 
Of Stanislaus County, Cronise said: "With the exception of a few scattered oaks along the larger streams, and a sparse growth of the same trees interspersed with an inferior species of pine found on the eastern foothills, the county is destitute of timber."28 These authors paint a clear picture of California's virtually treeless landscape.
 
It was during the gold rush, that the eucalyptus was introduced into California either by Australians, or by Americans who had been to Australia, or knew of the tree and had seed shipped in. Australian miners used eucalyptus oil in Australia in the recovery of gold as noted by this writer: "Diggers from our eastern goldfields (Australia), chasing the pot of gold at the American end of the rainbow, took and planted seed of those trees whose oil they had used in the flotation process for the recovery of gold particles . . . Eucalyptus oil."29
 
This seems plausible, but it does take time for the eucalyptus to reach a certain size to be able to produce a large enough volume of leaves from which a sizeable amount of oil can be distilled. Another problem would be the climate of the Sierra Nevada foothills where the gold was located. It is too cold normally at that altitude during the winter for the eucalyptus to survive.
 
A stronger possibility is the "strike it rich" concept. The eucalyptus is a fast-growing tree and provides firewood and materials for construction. This would interest most enterprising men. News of such a tree would have reached the ears of the miners or others in California from the Australians. Once the goldfields played out, these men of fortune turned to other prospects of gaining wealth. This colossus of a tree could be exploited for their financial gain, and it would seem possible to these redirected fortune hunters that the eucalyptus would enable them to "strike it rich."30
 
The Australians themselves seem to be a link. At this time, it was quicker to bring supplies from Australia than from eastern United States because American cargo ships had to go around the horn of South American, and The Panama Canal and the transcontinental railroad were not built yet. Shipyards in Sydney and Hobart Town, Tasmania constructed vessels made from blue gum which would ultimately sail into San Francisco Bay. These ships would be representatives of what the eucalyptus could do.31 A 90 ton schooner, it was said, was made from one eucalyptus tree! Imagine the attention and instant fame this claim would garner. Not only did the tree get a reputation, but the Australian woodcutters and shipbuilders who produce such a craft did as well.32
 
In Blue Clippers and Whale Ships of Tasmania, the author, Will Lawson, wrote: "These early Tasmanians were unusual men, their achievement and characters so  amazing and the ships they built so sturdy that Time could not destroy them. When they  wanted ships they built them, not always in properly appointed shipyards, but often in  creeks or on beaches or river banks, wherever suitable tall trees grew. These big- hearted men felled the trees (eucalyptus), pit-sawed them by hand power into planks,  beams, keels, and frames, to shape their vessels which were to brave the ocean  storms and the dangers of uncharted coasts. And they carried the name and  fame of Tasmanian ships and seamen over the seven seas."33
 
In 1849, over 2,600 Australians left Sydney for San Francisco.34 It took between three to four months to make the passage with the American clipper ships completing the trip quicker than the more bulky blue gum vessels. It was on one of these voyages that the first sack of eucalyptus seed was imported.35 Because eucalyptus seed is tiny, a small sack, which can hold several thousand seeds, was all that was needed.36
 
The demand for trees quickened with settlement because wood was needed for fuel and construction. Settlers from the well-forested eastern United States disliked the monotonous treeless landscape of California and immediately began planting trees near their buildings for beauty, shade and firewood. The eucalyptus could meet these needs quicker than other trees, and because of this and its enormous size, it attracted attention.
 

 WHO WAS REALLY FIRST?

 There is some speculation as to who was the first person to plant eucalyptus in California. Most accounts seem to point to W.C. Walker who was the owner of the Golden Gate Nursery in San Francisco located at Fourth and Folsom Streets. It is believed that he planted the first seeds in 1853 from 14 different species.38 In the August 7, 1857 issue of the California Farmer, Walker ran an advertisement with eucalyptus for sale. At the San Francisco Mechanics Fair of October 1857, he exhibited three different varieties of eucalyptus.39 One can conclude that without question, Walker was involved early in the propagation of eucalyptus in California.
 Dr. H.H. Behr of San Francisco, who was a German native and a friend of Alexander Humboldt, had an interest in eucalyptus which he spoke of often. He had been to Australia twice, where as a botanist he worked with the renowned Australian eucalyptologist Baron von Mueller. With such an association, it has been generally concluded that he either brought eucalyptus seeds from Australia to California or had them sent to him. Dr. Behr may in turn have given them to fellow San Franciscan Walker for care and nurture at his nursery. Nevertheless, California had a resident expert living in San Francisco, in the person of Dr. Behr, who undoubtedly urged the experimentation of eucalyptus.40
 
Looking for real hard evidence, H.M. Butterfield did find in1935 an 1858-1859 Golden Gate Nursery Catalog at the Academy of Sciences in Golden Gate Park. It listed eucalyptus species as follows:
 Eucalyptus Resinfera (Aus.)-- Splendid weeping forest tree. 60 feet. $10.00
  " Argentea " --  Argentea foliage 20 feet.  $10.00
  "  Augustifolia "  --  dwarf 5 feet           $  5.00

 Also noted in the catalog is a list of seeds received from M. Guilfoyle of Sydney, September 15, 1859. These species were robusta, iron bark, blue gum, longifolia, nigra, and globosa (globulus?).41
 
Maybe it was Captain Robert H. Waterman who planted the first eucalyptus seeds in California? In a biography of this clipper ship captain, entitled That Fabulous Captain, one finds that Waterman bought land in Suisun Valley for his retirement and planted eucalyptus in 1853. He apparently commissioned an ex-first mate to bring eucalyptus seed to him from Australia. Waterman not only planted seed on his ranch, he gave some to his neighbors as well. The blue gums currently in the area are felt to be connected with these early plantings.42
 
Professor Woodbridge Metcalf, one time Forester for the University of California, Berkeley, and an expert on California eucalyptus, felt from his research that the first eucalyptus in California appeared at Oakland's Shellmound Nurseries and Fruit Gardens in 1856.43 Metcalf gives no evidence to support his claim, but H.M. Butterfield, writing in 1939, notes that the nursery did have eucalyptus seedlings listed in its stock in 1856 for $5 each.44 The owner of the nursery was R.W. Washburn, and from the evidence, one can conclude that he was one of the pioneers in the propagation of eucalyptus in California. Still another challenge comes from Abbot Kinney, who wrote in 1895, " The planting of trees of various species of Eucalyptus in California has been carried on since January 1856, when Mr. C.L. Reimer successfully introduced 14 species."45 Kinney, an important figure in California eucalyptus history, does not continue the story of this account in his work. Without evidence from Kinney or other writers, it is difficult to support this claim though one would like to because of Kinney's importance to eucalyptology.
 
Taking into consideration all of these accounts and evidence, one seems to conclude that Behr and Walker were probably the first to propagate eucalyptus in California.  One can state, however, without question, that there were indeed eucalyptus pioneers on both sides of San Francisco Bay in the 1850's.
 

INTEREST CONTINUES
 
Soon the East Bay became the leader in the eucalyptus movement because of the availability of good land and an agreeable climate for the genus. Stephen Nolan, owner of Oakland's Bellevue Nursery, was impressed by the rapid growth and adaptability of Walker's eucalyptus so much that he commissioned a sea captain to bring him eucalyptus seed from Australia which he planted in 1861. He sold the seedlings and continued to buy seed to expand his eucalyptus interests.46 His 1871 catalog lists 34 species selling for 25 to 50 cents a plant with blue gum costing a mere 10 cents.47 The eucalyptus tree was a curiosity to most and were bought for beauty or shade.48

Involved in the early dissemination of eucalyptus were Bishop William Taylor, his wife Annie, and James T. Stratton, who was California's Surveyor-General. Bishop Taylor, minister of Alameda's Methodist Episcopal Church, visited Australia in 1862 while on a worldwide evangelical crusade. He sent eucalyptus seed to Annie, who planted them, and gave away or sold thousands of seedlings.49
 
General Stratton got seeds from Annie Taylor and was the first to plant blue gum on a large scale. In 1869, he planted forty-five acres on hill land behind Hayward in Alameda County. In 1880, he cut down 20 acres to make way for an orchard.50 In 1870, Stratton won a $50 prize from the State Board of Agriculture for his effort in planting such a large number of eucalyptus trees. He kept records of his work with eucalyptus to share with other interested growers.51 In Kern County Weekly Courier of August 1, 1874, this appeared:
 
The two Australian gum trees . . . on James T. Stratton's place in East Oakland, have  probably the largest family in the world. From their seed has sprang over one hundred  and fifty thousand trees, and the seed of these are already over fifty thousand more, that is two hundred thousand children and grandchildren all told.52
 
Curiously enough in the column next to this article was an advertisement for eucalyptus medicine. It read: "Double Extract of Eucalyptus for Fever and Ague at G.B. Chester's."53 Thus as early as 1872, just two decades after the introduction of eucalyptus into California, the tree was making itself known even to isolated regions of the state.
 
Stratton, owner of the Gum Tree Nurseries in Hayward, W.A.T. Stratton, a nurseryman in Petaluma, and Major Locke of Pasadena were the biggest producers and distributors of eucalyptus in the 1870's. In 1873, James Stratton marketed 50,000 seedlings, and in 1876, W.A.T. Stratton shipped 5,000 seedlings in just one day. Major Locke supplied 200,000 seedlings in 1877. There was a shortage of seedlings because of rising demand consequently eucalyptus seed was sold.54
 Interest in eucalyptus was beginning to surface too at the state government level. Its support in regard to experimentation and testing would be crucial. There was a section on "Australian Forest Trees" in the 1868 Transactions of the State Agriculture Society. Much of it was a reprint of a von Mueller's essay praising the eucalyptus for its rapid growth and size. The Transactions also noted that a recent botanical display by the society contained eucalyptus logs. It commented, "These woods generally are very hard  and  dense, and as they can all be naturalized in California, and many of them are already introduced, some facts about them have special interest."55
 
In 1870, in its biennial report, the State Board of Agriculture spoke of the need of "artificial forests" in California to cover the barren terrain. It was the duty of the board to stop any further destruction of the state's forest and to encourage the planting of new vegetation. To quote, "It is a matter of no less importance to encourage and foster the growth and cultivation of artificial forests."56
 
Further in its report, the board noted that California had no natural hardwoods which were needed in the manufacture of wagons, carriages, and agriculture implements. California's climate prevented any eastern hardwood to be successful in the state, but the board noted, "We have also imported and grown successfully some of the most valuable varieties of hard wood trees from Australia, and the timber produced from these is also to be equal to that grown in its native country." The board went on to recommend that a prize be given to the grower of "the largest quantity of useful forest trees planted during the year."57 The prize was the $50 awarded to James T. Stratton for his eucalyptus enterprise.
 
In 1862, a state law was passed to protect timber. It disallowed the cutting of trees on private land or public streets which seems extreme, but it was needed to stress the importance of trees to the state. This was followed by the another state law, the Tree Culture Act of 1868, which encouraged the planting of shade and fruit trees along California roads. In it the various county boards of super- visors were given the responsibility of coordinating the effort within their jurisdiction. Growers would get $1 per planted tree after the tree had grown for four years.
 
The project was not much of a success mostly because of a lack of interest, and there were some budgetary difficulties. Still it was a positive effort because the public was officially notified of the need of trees in the state, and the government was willing to adopt programs to help. The federal government too promoted programs to encouraged tree planting. In 1873 a federal law was enacted which gave 160 acres to anyone who planted 40 acres in trees and maintained them for a period of eight years.58
 
Towards the end of the century, one could already see on the California horizon lofty eucalyptus trees whose silhouettes resembled ship's masts and its foliage, the billowing sails. These mature eucalyptus trees were evidence that serious planting of eucalyptus had occurred decades before and indeed the eucalyptus did grow fast and was sizeable.
 
Distinctive individual trees could be seen like the blue gum planted in 1856 along Milpitas Road in San Jose by retired ship captain Joseph Aram. He retired from sea duty and opened a nursery in San Jose.59 It was speculated that eucalyptus had been planted as early as 1855 on the University of California, Berkeley campus,60 but documents do show that six species were planted on the campus in 1877.61 Other early trees include the eucalyptus planted by  Richard Davis at the corner of G and 15th Streets in Sacramento.62
 
A similar debate occurs as to who planted the first eucalyptus just in southern California. Nothing conclusive has been established. One account attributes William Wolfskill, owner of Rancho Santa Anita, to have received seed from the Taylors in 1863 or 1865 and planted a dozen trees.63 It may have been Albert Workman, a native of Australia, who imported seed from his homeland and planted it on his Canoga Park ranch in the early 1870's.64 At this time many southern California ranches received seed from the government seedling and seed program which muddles the water some.65 The first large acreage in southern California was planted by Ellwood Cooper and J.L. Barker, both of Santa Barbara County, in 1872. They planted 100 acres with 150,000 blue and red gums. Near Los Angeles, in 1874 and 1875, the Widney and Nadeau groves were planted.66

The printed media played an important role in the propagation of eucalyptus by its articles, advertisements, and promotional seed giveaways. The California Farmer became one of the biggest distributors of eucalyptus seed. In 1872, with a $4 subscription customers received packets of eucalyptus seed.67 The magazine's owner was Colonel Warren who was an acquaintance of W.C. Walker of Golden Gate Nursery. In 1875, California Farmer ran advertisements for thousands of eucalyptus seedlings which clearly shows the massive scope of the rising industry.68 Pacific Rural Press too was a strong proponent of eucalyptus and ran practical articles on planting, care and economics. These two periodicals had an enormous impact on the expansion of eucalyptus growing in the state.
 

TO THE END OF THE CENTURY
 
The first publication in California on the eucalyptus was compiled by Ellwood Cooper of Santa Barbara. It contained a lecture given by Cooper in 1870 and writings by the famed eucalyptologist Baron Ferdinand von Mueller of Australia all which was mentioned earlier in this study. This compilation contained philosophical discussions of forests, especially eucalyptus, and information concerning eucalyptus species, planting, and economics of harvesting. Cooper was one of the first to plant eucalyptus in an experimental sense. He examined growth, soils, and environmental factors keeping records which he shared with interested growers.69 His ranch, "Ellwood," was near the ocean and typically rocky and hilly which gave his experiments a variety of soils, elevation, and localized climates.
 
Cooper began his work with eucalyptus by contacting Thomas Adamson who was the U.S. Consul-General in Melbourne, Australia. He wrote and asked Adamson for seeds and information about eucalyptus. Along with eucalyptus seed, Adamson sent some of von Mueller's written works giving Cooper permission to publish them. Cooper in return sent fifty copies of his publication back to von Mueller. This way the botanist Baron could be informed of the progress of eucalyptus in California and share that information with others.70
 
Cooper's lecture in 1870 at Santa Barbara College was a milestone in the history of California eucalyptus. He spoke of the importance of forests in general to world climates, and that local climates could be changed by trees. He felt California could have a "perfect climate" by transforming the existing one with belts of trees. He recommended that California plant belts of eucalyptus from 100 to 150 feet wide and a quarter mile long at right angles to the prevailing wind. These belts would occupy 1/8 of California's landmass71 and serve not only as alterers of climate, but as protective windbreaks as well. He reasoned,
 
Contemplate the beauty, the grandeur, the productiveness of  the great valleys of the  Sacramento, the San Joaquin, the Salinas Plain, and every strip of arable land in the  state, with belts of eucalyptus trees . . . with such shelter, California would become  the paradise of the world.72 It is known and proved that three fourths of surface will  produce more, if protected by  trees planted in the other fourth.73
 
Cooper felt that property owners had a moral obligation to plant trees to provide a better environment. Economically, he argued, they would be compensated from returns on firewood and from crops protected by windbreaks.74 His lecture was a stirring one in which he used logic, reason, and appeals to ethic and moral standards of the day. He strongly urged the planting of eucalyptus. He implored, "What shall we plant? The rapidity of growth of the blue gum, and the facility with which it can be propagated, is a feature of great importance . . . "75 He continued, "Who does not look with an honest pride on the beautiful creation which, with a generous spirit, he has raised up around him."76
 
Cooper supplied eucalyptus seed to interested growers such as his good friend Judge Charles Fernald, who in turn provided seed to horticultural societies and organizations interested in forestry. Cooper was active statewide in forestry and served on the State Board of Forestry and the Commission of Horticulture. His contribution to the preservation and propagation of trees was enormous. He had a special love for the eucalyptus which he considered to be blessed with promise. His excitement for the genus can be seen in this glowing proclamation:
 
He (grower) increases certainty of his crops, decreases one-fourth of his labor,  beautifies his home, improves the climate, doubles the value of his land, receives  inspiration from this work of his own hands, elevates his own condition, and adds to the refinement of himself, his family, and all his surroundings.77
 
Advocates such as Cooper and the printed media served as prime motivators in a movement that was picking up momentum. But there is nothing like visual proof for the skeptical. Now one could see the much-discussed eucalyptus growing in abundance particularly along the California coast and in the inland valleys. Also one could go to the many nurseries where eucalyptus seed, seedlings, and literature was available. For many, growing eucalyptus was a reasonably-priced experiment.
 
The Central Pacific Railroad took an avid interest in the eucalyptus. The railroad constantly needed materials for its lines primarily for ties, poles, posts, and firewood. The eucalyptus conceivably could produce these necessary supplies according to contemporary information. The railroad also wanted to attract settlers to buy railroad land adjacent to the tracks. The plan was to beautify the barren landscape with fast-growing eucalyptus as an enticement.
 
In 1877, Assistant Chief Engineer for the Central Pacific Railroad, J.D. Scupham, bought 40,000 eucalyptus seedlings, mostly blue gum, from nurseries in Oakland and Hayward. The railroad planted the seedlings in the San Joaquin Valley and in some instances near wells as an attraction to settlers. The next year, 250,000 seedlings were bought from Locke of Pasadena and 300,000 from George Baxter of Hayward. In the two year planting program, the railroad planted about one million trees. The program was a bust though. Soon it was discovered that eucalyptus ties would crack and check if not seasoned properly. These ties could not hold a spike in place securely which was obviously of great importance to track stability. The eucalyptus wood also rotted away easily.78 Thus ended the first real experiment of eucalyptus for an industrial purpose. Decades later the Santa Fe Railroad would curiously repeat the exact same experience. Government agencies continued their support of eucalyptus through their informative literature and seed distribution programs. For example, the State Forestry Commission sold seeds at a very low price of the better eucalyptus species. The University of California had a program of offering free seed to interested growers.79 Experiment stations were also established by the government.
 
In 1887, the State Board of Forestry received land donations on which to build experiment stations.80 Experiment stations were instituted at Santa Monica, Chico, Merced, Hesperia, San Jacinto, and Lake Hemet. At the Santa Monica station one could buy eucalyptus seedlings for $3 or $4. This program was primarily designed to stimulate interest at the local nurseries. It was believed generally that eucalyptus could be grown for profit, and all that was needed was encouragement in the right places. It was reported that in 1890, the Santa Monica station distributed 76,000 eucalyptus seedlings to 421 interested growers. This station was experimenting with 55 eucalyptus species.81
 
In 1887, the State Board of Forestry was disbanded, and its authority and experimental stations were transferred to the College of Agriculture at the University of California, Berkeley. The college dean was E.W. Hilgard who distributed eucalyptus seed and seedlings of various species to the public. By 1900 the college was the authority on eucalyptus in California. Work at the experiment stations continued with Santa Monica and Chico stations being the most active.82
 Municipalities took an interest in eucalyptus. Trees were planted for shade and to beautify parks and streets. In the 1880's, San Francisco's Mayor Adolph Sutro, along with local school children, planted eucalyptus on Arbor Days at the Presidio, Sutro Forest, Mount Davidson, and Yerba Buena Island.83 Over 300,000 trees were planted in Golden Gate Park by John McLaren, many which were eucalyptus.84
 
Abbot Kinney of Santa Monica made major contributions to the propagation of the eucalyptus. He served as the chairman of the State Forestry Bureau from 1886 to 1888, and as State Forester, he distributed an untold quantity of free eucalyptus seeds and seedlings throughout the state. His only request was that growers keep records which would serve as information for prospective growers.
 
Kinney served as roadmaster in the Santa Monica area where he lined the roads with eucalyptus and planted a multitude of seedlings on his ranches in Santa Monica and San Gabriel Valley. He lectured and published a very important work in 1895 with the simple title of Eucalyptus.85 It was the most comprehensive treatment at the time containing instructions on planting and care of eucalyptus with accounts on experiments and detailed descriptions of species. It was an encyclopedic document.
 
By the end of the nineteenth century, California had been fully invaded by the eucalyptus. It could be seen most anywhere in the state where climate permitted. It was being used for fuel, windbreaks, medicines, shade, and beautification. Writing in Out West in 1904, Alfred McClatchie observes, "Without the Eucalyptus, California would be a very different state. What she owes to them it is impossible to fully estimate. Nothing short of being entirely deprived of these  trees would enable her citizens to realize how much their presence means. Without them, landscapes now varied and softened by their presence would be  comparatively monotonous and unattractive. Winds would sweep unchecked over  regions where their progress is now impeded by avenues and groves of Eucalypts.  Orchards that in the shelter of Eucalypts are profitable would be unproductive. Had not these trees been introduced, the fuel problem would be a very different one.  Were some agency to destroy all the Eucalypts now growing in California, the price of  real estate would fall at once.".86
 
The whole eucalyptus tree could be used from its roots to its crown, from its bark to its foliage. It not only provided fuel, windbreaks, medicine, shade and beauty, it also was lumber for implements, nectar for bees, pulp for paper, and chemical for boiler cleaning. When cut down, the eucalyptus would resprout providing yet another crop of products within a few years. It appeared to be a miracle tree only limited by one's imagination. It created an excitement leading to a surge of interest that would become the boom of 1905 to 1912.
 
Waxing poetic, California writer Lawrence Clark Powell speaking at Mills College, with its eucalyptus groves, cooed, " . . . no tree is more beautiful in the wind or against the sky, and none provides better nesting for the soft-voiced mourning dove. As for firewood, the bittersweet smell of this wood is evidence of a non-sparking blaze almost as slow-burning oak."87
 
But not everyone was enchanted by the genus, and the numbers would grow when soon its true economic value would be revealed. These disgruntled individuals would disdainfully refer to the eucalyptus as the "Australian weed." In this passage from Old Calabria, novelist Norman Douglas vents his disgust on the wonder tree:
 A single eucalyptus can ruin the faire landscape. No plant on earth rustles such a horribly metalic fashion when the wind blows through these everlasting withered branches; the noise chills on the marrow; it is like the sibilant chant of ghosts. Its oil is called "medicine" only because it happens to smell rather nasty; it is worthless timber, objectionable in form and hue -- objectionable above all things, in its perverse, and inhuman habits. What other tree would have the effrontery to turn the sharp edge of its leaves -- as if these were not narrow enough already! of their minimum of shade and maximum discomfort to mandkind?88
 

FROM RAG TO RICHES, MAYBE?
 
Many of the eucalyptus trees seen today in California base their existence on the eucalyptus boom of 1905-1912, during which time, large eucalyptus plantations were created with the hope of reaping sizeable profits. The tree promised much. Its rapid growth and size were well-known. Californians had developed valuable uses for it. It was promoted by the print media, government, the University, and enthusiasts who gave lectures and published essays on it. It was a rising star that received yet another boost in 1907. The U.S. Forest Service issued a report entitled "The Waning Hardwood Supply and the Appalachian Forests." The eucalyptus is a hardwood which could fill this void.
 
In the 1870 Biennial Report of the State Board of Agriculture, there was a discussion concerning the need of hardwood in California. Californians already had to import hardwood from eastern United States and Australia because none grew in the state. The report encouraged the planting of "artificial forests" to meet this need.89 At this time, Ellwood Cooper was clamoring for the same activity, and he was trying to show the economic viability of eucalyptus with the hope that it would meet the hardwood needs of the state in the future.
 
Building on this idea in 1888, George McGillivrey published an article in Overland Monthly entitled "The Economic Value of the Eucalyptus" in which he presented the many possible products the eucalyptus could produce. He based his pitch on the manufacturing done in Australia; however, this was manufacturing that utilized centuries-old eucalyptus instead of young trees which is a crucial distinction. McGillivrey went on to praise the adaptability of the eucalyptus to California and the possibilities of its many species. It was quite simple to him. Just plant eucalyptus and "while quietly the forest advances almost without expenditure and care, its wood treasures increase from year to year without taxing the patience of generations."90 He summarizes, "The propagation of Eucalyptus is easy, rapid, and inexpensive."91 Who could argue differently after seeing the process and its living results.
 
With articulate men in the eucalyptus industry praising the value of the tree, and with government and the University supporting the effort, anyone with some interest and finances could easily be persuaded to invest in the industry that was still in its infancy. It looked like an investment too good to pass up to any intelligent person.
 
Abbot Kinney added more wood to the eucalyptus fire with his advocacy in lecture, publication, and experimentation. He was considered an eucalyptus authority and a sensible businessman. In many ways, he was model of what others could do if they too became active in the industry. He had records of positive results from his eucalyptus farming and spoke eagerly on the subject.
 
On the eve of the eucalyptus boom, Alfred James McClatchie, horticulturalist at the Arizona Experimental Station in Phoenix, published a U.S. Bureau of Forestry bulletin entitled "Eucalypts Cultivated in the United States." This 1902 document was chock-filled with history, discussion of horticultural techniques and uses of eucalyptus. It was an impressive publication of information and encouragement where every part of the eucalyptus seemed to have a use and solid economic value. McClatchie reduced and summarized much of the bulletin in two articles he published in 1904 in Out West, a widely circulated magazine. In Out West he wrote, "The Eucalypts serve a greater value of useful purposes than the trees of any other genus existing on the globe today."92 This was the attitude of most heading into the boom. The eucalyptus boom got immediate support from the 1907 U.S. Forest Service circular with the title "The Waning Hardwood Supply and the Appalachian Forests," written by William L. Hall which was mentioned before. It was a frank discussion of the shrinking supply of hardwood so needed by many industries in the United States. It was a scary report that received wide publicity. In it, Hall presented the facts concerning the remaining hardwood supply in each Appalachian state. It was bleak. Harvested amounts were falling off, but there was also a decline in demand. Nevertheless, something had to be done to fill the gap. Hall wrote at the end of the circular:
 
The inevitable conclusion is that there are lean years close ahead in the use of  hardwood timber. There is sure to be gap between the supply which exists and the supply which will have to be provided. How large that gap will be depends upon how soon and how effectively we begin to make provision for the future supply. The present indications are that in spite of the best we can do there will be a shortage of hardwoods running through at least fifteen years.93
 
Hall felt though that softwood, metal, and concrete would replace hardwood eventually in many instances.94 To demonstrate the alarm produced by the report, one author grimly records, "History shows that following in the wake of timber exhaustion, invariably will be found decaying civilization, race, disintegration, national corruption and dissolution."95 Hoping to circumvent any such demise, there were investors digging deeply into their pockets to finance an answer. The miraculous eucalyptus seemed to be the solution to many though Hall made no mention of it in his report.
 
The rush was on. There were a flurry of articles expressing the importance of eucalyptus in the hardwood question. George Peavy, beginning in 1909, wrote a series of articles for the California Weekly entitled "Eucalyptus in California," which were designed to enrich and encourage those involved in the eucalyptus industry. He reported that there were "fully one hundred companies engaged either in planting eucalyptus seedlings, contracting to plant acreage, selling acreage in prospective plantations, or selling stock in companies whose avowed object is to plant, care for, and harvest the product of eucalyptus plantations."96 There now was a full-blown eucalyptus industry in California.
 
Peavy believed there to be a market for eucalyptus hardwood because the amount of hardwood harvested from 1899 to 1906 had decreased by 15.3%. But was this because of decrease in demand or decrease in availability? It was the former, but Peavy still expected that the eucalyptus would be a major supplier of hardwood soon because of its rapid growth. To be successful in the market place, he highly recommended that the eucalyptus grower be scientific by selecting the proper species and land.97
 
State Forester, George Lull, published two articles in 1909 and a circular for the State Board of Forestry. His articles appeared in Grizzly Bear and the California Weekly. His approach to the eucalyptus boom was cautionary but still supportive. This could be by virtue of his position in which a more conservative stance was expected. He did feel that the eucalyptus could play a key role in the hardwood shortage. Lull did warn though, just like Peavy, that to be successful it was necessary to plan, develop, and care for land and trees scientifically.98
 
In any industrial boom, there is always the problem of the unscrupulous schemer those who will distort fact to gain profit. Promotional literature from eucalyptus companies came under scrutiny. Lull urged interested investors to compare the information in the companies' prospectuses to the studies found in government publications especially on eucalyptus growth and harvest yield. There were a few eucalyptus companies that were investigated by authorities concerning their ethics. A committee of real estate agents and foresters was created in Los Angeles just to review promotional literature.99
 
It was this statement made by Lull which got him into some difficulty: It would appear to require no wizard's mind to foresee that this State will become, within the next twenty years, the base of hardwood supplies and  the home of the  hardwood manufacturers. If such should be the case the long-despised eucalypts will be
 greater wealth-producers than the orange or any other of California's famous  crops.100
 
He also commented that eucalyptus was similar to oak and hickory as a hardwood. It was felt by his critics that he had overstepped his bounds because such commentary would invite wildcat investments throwing the industry into a whirlwind of gluttonous activity. It was felt that control was needed not chaos in the fragile infant industry.
 
Lull continued to take what he thought was a reasonable stance on the issue. He even criticized Peavy in a letter he wrote to California Weekly concerning Peavy's statistics. He indicated that Peavy had used 1903 figures in his article which did not apply in 1909. Lull was trying to make it known, even though he had been overzealous in his prediction, that the government wanted growers and investors to move cautiously and verify information before plunging forward.101
 
The federal government got involved in the issue. In 1910, H.S. Betts and C. Stowell Smith authored an U.S. Forest Service circular with the title "Utilization of California Eucalypts." The circular warned the public of the possibility of being misled by published statistics which over-projected yields and profits. It wanted it to be clearly known that the Forest Service was still uncertain that the eucalyptus would bring in the returns the industry was expecting.102
 
The reason for this caution and guarded skepticism can be seen in this comment from the authors Betts and Smith: " The problem utilizing eucalyptus wood readily without undue waste is a difficult one  because of its tendency to warp, shrink, and check during drying."103
 
They went on to note that the promise of eucalyptus in California was based on the old virgin forests of Australia. This was a mistake as the young trees being harvested in California could not compared in quality to the centuries-old eucalyptus timber of Australia. It reacted differently to harvest. The older trees didn't split or warp as the infant California crop did. There was a vast difference between the two, and this would doom the California eucalyptus industry.104
 
Having looked at the publications by authorities whose views had a great impact on the eucalyptus boom and also its demise, let's dip into the boom itself and see first-hand its frenzied activity. Knowledge of the eucalyptus had already spread across the United States. Those in forestry circles knew it was a fast-growing tree that could provide strong and durable wood if given the proper treatment. In California some had grown eucalyptus on prime agriculture land with excellent results. The government had done tests on certain species to determine its strength and durability. Those results were admirable. Eucalyptus simply showed great promise.
 Eastern furniture companies, aware of the shrinking hardwood supply, and having heard about the eucalyptus industry in California, wanted to relocate in the West. Charles Glum, representing a large Philadelphia furniture company, commented: "We have been on the coast for several weeks, with the view of acquiring lands for the  growing of the red Eucalyptus tree . . . I am of the opinion that the gum is a harder wood and is more suitable for furniture purposes .  . . It will be necessary to move our  factories to this coast . . . In fact, all the large eastern manufacturers are working along the same lines."105
 
In 1907, the first nursery that was exclusively eucalyptus, produced 600,000 seedlings in its first year. By 1911, all eucalyptus nurseries together in California would have a total production of 7 1/2 million seedlings.106 It took 144 men and 100 horses to plant fields of 1,600 acres in eucalyptus. One manufacturing and milling company bought acreage to supply its saws with eucalyptus lumber. This same company had plans to build a factory to process eucalyptus for implements, vehicle stock, and flooring. The company enthusiastically stated, "Demands for the product are so great that the factory will not be able to supply all the orders offered."107
 
Hughes Manufacturing and Lumber Company of Los Angeles was using eucalyptus extensively and the demand was so great that orders were hard to fill.108 In reaction to demand for information about eucalyptus, the State Board of Forestry published a circular entitled, "A Handbook for Eucalyptus Planters." It dealt with planting, species, soils, moisture, and climate. It also contained studies on size, age, and yield done by measuring specimens at plantations throughout the state. The purpose was to head off wild production claims.109
 
It seems that eucalyptus companies were using statistics from the Forestry Society of California, a non-governmental entity. An investigation was launched into society's practices especially the information in its literature. It found that an advertising agency had  gathered the statistics and produced the brochures. The society had to be reorganized and its literature cleaned up to the satisfaction of the investigating authorities.110 Still company prospectuses were as one would expect, slick brochures with glowing statements and carefully selected pictures. The advertising prospectus of the Mahogany Eucalyptus and Land Company of Oakland was largely a pictorial presentation containing photographs of trees, nurseries and plantations. Its text made claims in the usual superlative fashion, such as, "This tree at this particular moment is in many instances the most valuable one on the face of the globe. Maturity is in a decade or two. No Teak, Mahogany, Ebony, Hickory or Oak was ever tougher, denser, stronger or of more glorious hardness . . . "111
 
The prospectus went on to proclaim that the eucalyptus could grow to over 500 feet and that the company's plantations were fully active. It spoke of the many uses of the eucalyptus and about its healing nature as a medicine. The company claimed nine nurseries and had photographs of them. Throughout, the prospectus was nicely done, used typical selling techniques, and didn't appear to be dishonest except maybe the usual exaggerations which one would expect. It ended by saying, "The purpose of the prospectus is to show that the Company's money investiture in Eucalyptus is as the Rock of Gibraltar for impregnable strength and strategic position."112
 
The president of the Mahogany Eucalyptus and Land Company was Frank C. Havens who did indeed plant eucalyptus throughout the Oakland hills. He got seed from Australia and planted millions of seedlings on 3,000 acres. He built a sawmill, and the company's arboretum contained sixty varieties of eucalyptus. The company was incorporated in December 1910 and was dissolved in February 1913. Its impact can still be seen today in the forests that grace the landscape.113
 
The eucalyptus companies advertised for investors to be partners in the enterprise. An investor could buy land fully planted and make monthly payments. The company did all of the work, and shared what profits there were with their business partners. It took normally ten years before a profit could be realized. An acre planted in eucalyptus cost $250 with the promise of making $2,500 an acre at harvest time ten years later.114 This offer was tempting, and "widows, teachers, and small businessmen invested their life savings in the eucalyptus boom. Farmers ripped out staple crops to plant eucalyptus."115
 
The railroads took an interest. Santa Fe Railroad planted eucalyptus on thousands of acres at Rancho Santa Fe for ties, poles, and interior woods for railroad cars. By 1908, the railroad discovered, just as the Central Pacific Railroad did several decades before, that unseasoned eucalyptus wood twisted and cracked thus putting an end to their project.116 Even the novelist Jack London got into the act. He planted 100,000 trees on his ranch with the intention of using the wood for furniture. This would not eventuate.117
 
From Fall 1909 to Spring 1910, 23,000 acres in California were planted in eucalyptus, mostly red and blue gums. These investments were obviously at an infancy stage as it would take years before harvesting could take place. Eucalyptus still at this point was being used primarily for firewood.118
 
The boom fizzled. It was found that eucalyptus wood could not be seasoned properly to do the things that had been anticipated. Tests of seasoning were performed and processes were structured for proper curing, but there was a great dissatisfaction with these. Eucalyptus wood warped, cracked, twisted, and became too tough once cured. The yields that were projected it was found would take too many years to be realized. The hardwood shortage that spurred the boom was resolved by the use of steel, cement, and other substitutes. Wagons and carriages were being replaced by metal automobiles thus ending that hardwood market. Using eucalyptus for fuel was diminished by the discovery and rising use of oil, gas, and electricity.
 
The boom ended. Lumber mills using exclusively eucalyptus timber closed. Furniture manufacturers moved back East. Plantation trees were sold for firewood. Pharmacologists dropped their support which meant that eucalyptus would not be used in most medicines. Prime agriculture land was returned to traditional crops. Nurseries unloaded their eucalyptus stock. Through the rest of the twentieth century eucalyptus would be used mostly for fuel, windbreaks, and in certain medicines.
 
Not everyone was enchanted with the eucalyptus anyway, and now even more felt a dislike as represented in this sarcastic piece from The Argonaut:
 There is a craze all over the state about the eucalyptus or Australian blue gum tree . . .  Eucalyptus will frighten away fevers and murder malaria. Its leaves cure asthma. Its  roots knocks out ague as cold as jelly. Its bark improves that of a dog. A dead body  buried in a coffin made from the wood of the blue gum will enjoy immunity from the  exploring mole and the penetrating worm . . . this absurd vegetable is now growing all over the State. One cannot get out of its sight . . . crops up everywhere in independent ugliness. It defaces every landscape with botches of blue and embitters every breeze with suggestions of an old woman's medicine chest. Let us have no more of it.119
 

THE DOLDRUMS
 
For the next 40 years, the country would see wars and a great depression. Interest in eucalyptus declined dramatically and farmers turned to irrigated crops especially in the inland valleys. However, the eucalyptus was well and flourishing. Beautiful forests dotted the coastal hillsides and crevices. They had become a permanent fixture so much so that most residents of the state believed them to be native. Left untouched, their size even awed visiting Australians. Magazines recognized these mammoths by carrying travel articles which pointed out special groves or unique individual trees.
 

RENEWED INTEREST

There was a spawning of interest in the 1950's. The Masonite Corporation tested various eucalyptus species in regard to fibreboard. In the 1960's, the University of California Cooperative Extension launched a program to identify eucalyptus species determining which ones grew the fastest. Quick growth tied with economics is always of interest. New species were being tested such as nitens, glaucens, and ovata.120
 
The energy crisis of the 1970's and a renewed interest in small-acreage farming brought attention to the miracle eucalyptus. Alternative sources of energy was high on the agenda. Instead of turning generators with petroleum fuel, biomass fuel, such as wood and other similar substances, was being considered. This form of energy was examined by the University of California and the State Forestry Department, and in the 1980's, nine biomass study sites were created.121
 
Environmental tolerances of the various eucalyptus species are now being tested provoked by recent California droughts and freezes. New smaller species are being genetically produced primarily for highway and urban planting. There are between 70 to 100 species growing in California today.122
 
The 1980's did usher in renewed large scale growing of eucalyptus for biomass fuel, fibreboard, and pulp for paper. Some growers have planted 30 acres or more with 80,000 to 100,000 seedlings. There are small growers too who may have of an acre of land planted in eucalyptus for firewood. Cords of cut wood are bringing $125 to $180. Windbreaks are still being planted for protection of crops and residences. In the recent droughts, certain species of eucalyptus are proving to be survivors and thus are used for shade and ornamentation requiring little care.123
 
Eucalyptus workshops have been held in Sacramento for the exchange of ideas and new findings. One such workshop was held June 14-16, 1983 and covered such topics as history, species selection, products, uses, economics, growth and yield, cultural requirements, propagation, and breeding programs. Another workshop was held May 9, 1991.
 
Eucalyptus is found worldwide and is in major industrial production in Brazil and China. There are environmental and cultural concerns to address. It is for certain though, like it or not, the eucalyptus will always be a tree of the future because it has so much to offer humanity.
 
 

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
 
The eucalyptus can be found in a variety of sizes with some species being among the largest trees in the world; whereas, other members of the genus, may be mere shrubs. It  grows on the desert, swampland, valleys, and alpine regions. It finds nourishment in a complexity of soils and can survive in differing types of climate.
 
The eucalyptus is an evergreen and many species grow very rapidly especially globulus. Mostly erect in form, the tree is strong and usually slender. It is an aggressive plant whose leaves demand every vestige of sunlight, and its roots suck up all the moisture within their domain. The color of the wood varies from white to dark brown depending upon the species with the heartwood and sapwood being indistinguishable among species. The grain of this hardwood is similar to hickory or ash and is just as beautiful if handled correctly by the workworker.124
 
It propagates best from seed, and because of this, there is no transfer of disease as would be the case with cuttings or seedlings.125 This has been an important factor in the success of eucalyptus in California which has been virtually disease-free; thus, from the beginning of its introduction into California, eucalyptus seed and not seedlings have been imported from Australia.
 

IDENTIFICATION
 
Of all the Australian plants, the eucalyptus species are the most difficult to distinguish from one another because of their physical similarity.126 The eucalyptus belongs to the Myrtaceae family in which there are ninety separate genera. In the eucalyptus genus there are over 600 species, and even this figure is an estimate, because there are numerous separate varieties that have a similar nomenclature. This is because trees within an eucalyptus grove grow closely to each other, producing many hybrids.127
 
Classification of the various species of the eucalyptus was first attempted in 1789 by M. Willdenow who used the shape of the operculum or lid as his basis. In 1828 Augustin Pyramus de Candolle created another classification which was based on the leaf's relative position to the stem. Von Mueller designed still another classification which was contained six bark types. In 1886, George Bentham, followed still with another based on the anthers, which is where the pollen is found, and modified by fruit types and types of oil found on the leaves.128
 
The idea behind formulating a classification is to simplify the identification of the species. But as one can see, classification is in the eye of the beholder -- basically how the inquiring scientist sees the plant.  Because of advances in science and technology, identification has been made easier, and because of this, new species have been found. Other eucalyptus classification systems have been designed besides the ones noted above, but the method of using the operculum as a basis seems to be the standard.
 

CLIMATE
 
For most eucalyptus species mild climate is the best where there are warm summers, temperate winters, moderate rainfall, dry atmosphere, and plenty of sunlight. Temperature tolerance ranges generally between 15 to 100 degrees F. Quick changes in temperatures, however, are stressful for the eucalyptus especially in the weaker trees. Occasional storms with heavy rainfall are better than frequent rain because sunlight is important for growth as well as moisture.129
 
The eucalyptus grows best along the coast of central and southern California which is substantiated by observing the lush healthy groves and forests found in those areas. An outline of the eucalyptus growing region can be seen be locating the frostline on a California map. Frost-tolerance varies from species to species. For example, blue and sugar gums are damaged when temperatures dip below 26 degrees F. while manna and gray gum can withstand colder temperatures to 22 degrees F. Seedlings many times are killed by extremes in temperatures because of their small size and fragile nature.130 Humidity is important to some species especially the blue gum which does quite well in coastal fogs.131 As a rule of thumb, most eucalyptus species will be successful wherever citrus and olive trees are successful as they essentially require the same climatic mix of moisture and warmth.132
 

DROUGHT
 
Drought in recent years has made Californians more conscience of water conservation especially in regard to plant life. Some eucalyptus species have proven to be drought resistant. In the 1917, there was a drought in California where temperatures hovered between 110 and 120 degrees F. It was found that the foliage on most eucalyptus trees burned with the amount of tree damage being dependent upon type of soil and wind. Trees in loamy soil did better than those on sandy soil because it contained more moisture. A survey was done concerning the number of trees killed by the 1917 drought. It was found that of 2,885 blue gum trees examined only 9 died. The red gum did even better in that only 10 trees died out of 4,461.133
 

FROST
 
The amount of frost an eucalyptus tree can take is determined by the atmosphere's humidity, the tree's condition, the tree's sap flow, and the age of the tree. Older trees can take temperatures up to 15 degrees F.; whereas, younger trees can take only a minimum of 24 degrees F.134 The covering of young trees with straw or gunnysacks is important to protect them from the cold. Exposure to sunlight at any point, young or old, is important to a tree's survival especially in colder weather. Of all the eucalyptus species amygdalina (peppermint) has proven to be the most resistant to frost.135 This is followed in frost-tolerance order by red, gray, manna, blue, sugar, and lemon gum trees.136 To develop a grove of frost-tolerant eucalyptus, collect and plant seed only from those trees that give evidence of resistance to frost.137
 
A freeze hit southern California in 1913 where temperatures dropped to 14 degrees F. It was found that not a blue gum was lost, and trees in dense groves suffered the least because colder temperatures were kept away from the inner trees. Blue gum resprouted the quickest to replace the foliage that had been damaged. Plantations having one or two year old trees lost 85% of them. Manna gum proved to be the most resistant to the cold with only 20% of its foliage being damaged.138 E.N. Munns, Forest Examiner of the U.S. Forest Service, studied the damage and published his results in Journal of Forestry. It is an in-depth study of the species and their damage with the most popular species having good survival rates.139
 
In December 1932, temperatures in the Central Valley dropped to 5 degrees F. Many eucalyptus trees looked destroyed, but because the roots were still alive, foliage resprouted as warmer weather came forth in the spring. Cold winter weather is not uncommon in California because the Alaska storm system sweeps the region. The 1972 freeze did burn back many species of eucalyptus. Once the litter was cleaned from that freeze, another cold-snap hit in 1990.140 The species less affected by frost are the ones which grow the slowest. They contain less water and hence less moisture to freeze. But it is the common thought, that since eucalyptus resprout anyway after environmental damage, it is still profitable to plant the faster growing species.141
 
Recent studies and reports have been published in regard to environmental tolerance of eucalyptus. New hybrids and clones are being tried with the hope of finding species that will resist satisfactorily radical temperature fluctuations.142 A report on frost damage from the 1990 freeze identified certain factors that determine eucalyptus damage among which are soil moisture content, duration of the low temperatures, tree size and condition, local climate, and the time in the season the freeze strikes. In the 1990 freeze, temperatures went as low as 10 degrees F. in the Bay Area. The eucalyptus trees suffered enormous amount of damage from curled stems and twigs to split bark.143 It is a fact of life, that freezing weather is unkind to this genus, but it is also true that it will fight back by producing new sprouts in the warmer months. It is simply a hard tree to kill.
 

SOILS
 
The perfect soil for most eucalyptus species is deep, well-drained loamy soil. The problem is this soil is used by other more valuable agricultural crops. The eucalyptus is generally planted on unused or worthless sections of acreage which contain poorer soil. The chemical composition of the soil is important though in that large amounts of harsh chemicals will stunt and damage the tree.144 The soils moisture content too is important because most eucalyptus species are dependent upon massive amounts of water for their quick growth.145
 
Water availability depends upon the water table depth. Ideal depth for most eucalyptus is a water table that is eight to ten feet below the surface. Some species do well with a water table depth at thirty feet. Hardpan near the soil surface is not good though because the roots are prevented from seeking the water table. The roots will in this case grow laterally not giving the tree a strong and sturdy taproot. Eucalyptus responds well to moist soil through natural rainfall or irrigation. However, most species won't grow in standing water such as is found in swampy land. Two species which do excel in such dampness are the red gum and swampy mahogany.146
 
Soils for eucalyptus need to contain plant food elements such as potash, lime, magnesia, iron, phosphoric acid, and humus with high nitrogen content.147 Eucalyptus roots can spread out to 100 feet laterally and sink 60 feet into the soil.148 There has been much experimentation with eucalyptus growing in alkali soils. Alkali deposits can stunt a tree's growth until the roots break through it.149 But there are species that can absorb alkali removing it from the soil so other crops can be planted successfully. In 1985, over 650,000 eucalyptus and casurina trees were planted in western San Joaquin Valley to determine the ability of these genera to remove alkali found in the soil of undrained land.150
 

SEEDS

Eucalyptus seeds are generally small in size with only a few within a capsule being fertile. The hardiness of the tree determines the number of seeds it produces. Trees between twenty to forty years of age produce the most seeds. Sunlight is needed to germinate seeds that is why in dense forests or groves no seedlings grow. The canopy of the foliage and the litter on the ground keep the sunlight out.151 But when a fire sweeps through a forest, seeds are exposed to sunlight allowing replacement of damaged trees. The eucalyptus produces massive amounts of seed to allow survival after such environmental damage.152
 
Many non-native plants do not reproduce from seed naturally, but eucalyptus do in California.153 This demonstrates its adaptability to foreign climate and soils. The fruit of the eucalyptus remains unopened until it falls to the ground. Seed dissemination is uncommon by the wind or birds; consequently, seedlings appear right beneath the parent tree where the fruit dropped.154
 
In the early planting years in California, results from eucalyptus seed held some surprises. Quite often the species desired was not the species produced from the acquired seed. This caused much discouragement and frustration. Even seed from known experts were mistakenly identified. For example, Baron von Mueller sent seed to L. Stengel, a Los Angeles nurseryman, which produce other species than thought. The problem was not really in the mishandling and misidentifying seed, but lay in environmental differences.  Because California varies somewhat in climate and soil from Australia, the Australian seed planted produced a California eucalyptus which is somewhat different in char-  acter.155  Also, many eucalyptus look alike such as the manna and red gums.156
 
Abbot Kinney remarked in 1895 on seed confusion: " One of my most reliable correspondents in years gone by has sent me seed marked Eucalyptus polyanthema, which turned out to be Eucalyptus gunnii, and packages of rostrata that in one case contained six different species of Eucalyptus."157
 
Blue gum seeds are small, mostly fertile, and can be kept for up to four years before planting. One ounce of seed contains 10,000 fertile seeds.158 Still eucalyptus trees can be difficult to propagate due to the smallness of the seed, general infertility, and required climates.159 The best time to collect seed is in late summer or early fall. Spread the seed capsules out in the sun and the seeds will be expelled from the capsules in a few days. Good seeds will germinate within a week.160 Start the young seedlings with seeds in flat nursery boxes. Plant the seedlings in prepared soil after the frosty season. It is best to plant on cloudy days with the likelihood of slight rain.161
 
In recent years, seed sources have become extremely important because of the economics of the massive eucalyptus plantations found in Brazil and China. In 1985, the first seed source studies began to appear where seeds gathered from various locations in Australia and California were tested for hardiness and growth.162 Of recent, there has been such a demand for seeds from the Lake Albacutya area, an Australian national park, to the point where the authorities are concerned that there is  not enough seed left to maintain the natural forests there. This puts pressure on the non-Australian countries to grow their own seed for planting.163 In 1987, tests began to enlarge the pool of California-produced seed. Such studies are important  because reliable seed sources are critical to the future of eucalyptus as a commercial entity.164
 
In place of seed reproduction cloning of eucalyptus is being tried. This is done by taking a "rooting" from a stem or stump, and planting it; thus, the new tree is in reality the same tree or a clone.165 Hybridization can occur though when several species are in a grove sharing the same soil. Selection of a rooting then must be done carefully to assure that the desired clone is produced.166
 

YOUNG PLANTS
 
Young eucalyptus require frequent watering. Coastal trees usually find enough moisture from fog where the trees in the inland valleys get water from irrigation. Weeds need to be eliminated near young trees because they rob the soil of the life-sustaining nutrients. Also rodents need to be kept away from seedlings because they will ravish them.167
 
As the eucalyptus grows its lower branches drop off leaving a trunk that is like a straight pole. In crowded groves, young trees compete for sunlight making them
straight and thin.168
 

STRENGTH
 
Hardness, strength, durability, and flexibility varies with each species. Eucalyptus is generally very tough, and resists denting, tension, and torsion.169 Strength tests done early this century found that eucalyptus compares with white oak and hickory. Australian and California grown eucalyptus were tested for strength and found that there wasn't any difference.170
 
Because eucalyptus uses extreme amounts of water to feed its fast growth, the woodgrains are few, and the texture is very dense. Freshly cut eucalyptus wood will sink in water because of its weight.171 After being dried, shrinkage of eucalyptus timber is between 34.6% and 13.5% depending upon the species and environmental conditions.172
 

FOLIAGE
 
The color found in eucalyptus foliage varies according to the species, and usually it is blue, light or grayish green, or dark green. The foliage varies in density from sparse to very dense. Young leaves are broad and short becoming long and narrow as the tree ages. The edges of the leaves point to the sun for the collecting of sunlight. Leaves are also thick and leathery containing oil glands which emit a highly-scented odor.173
 

FLOWERS
 
In most eucalyptus species, the flowers are noticeable with some being profuse and showy. Their color varies from white, cream, pink, yellow, and red depending upon the species.174 There are two types of flowering eucalyptus: one which flowers once a year and one which flowers most of the year. Only sideroxylon and polyanthema species are of the former, and amygdalina, regnans, angostrifolia, and linearis are examples of the latter. The constant availability of pollen for honey bees year round is an economic advantage, but eucalyptus honey has a strong peppermint taste and odor which makes it disagreeable to some consumers. Manufacturers mix it with orange blossom honey for a better taste and scent.175

BARK, TRUNK, and ROOTS
 
Eucalyptus is known for its shedding bark and its smooth white, almost porcelain-appearing, surface underneath. Commonly today, along California freeways, one can see another type of eucalyptus which has a black furrowed surface that doesn't shed. It doesn't have the artistic appearance of the other but serves a purpose in the drought exposed areas of the interior.
 
Baron von Mueller developed a classification of eucalyptus by bark type. For example, gums have smooth bark which is gray-creme and sheds in ribbons or in flakes. Bloodwood  species can be both smooth-barked or rough-barked. Boxes and peppermint species have fibrous and closely interlaced bark. Stringybarks are fibrous, thick, coarse, and don't shed. And ironbarks have black furrowed bark containing kino or resin which hardens in the air.176
 
The trunks of many eucalyptus species are erect and straight-grained. The circumference of these trunks is larger at the bottom gradually getting smaller going up the trunk. This is a proper shape necessary for poles, masts, and piles. There are some species that have crooked trunks and are used for other purposes.177 Some trunks look like mottled marble being silver or white in color.178 Eucalyptus trunk wood is as hard as hickory and just as tough to penetrate.179
 
The root system is important to the eucalyptus primarily because its rapid growth and size demands large quantities of water. It needs a strong taproot to secure it and lateral roots to support its size. The taproot needs to sink down into the soil at least six feet for good anchorage. Lateral roots will spread out to one hundred feet which can be a problem when planted near buildings and other types of facilities. The roots and rootlets can disrupt ditches, crack cisterns, clog water pipes and damage septic tanks.180 Eucalyptus roots are aggressive.
 

CROPPING BACK
 
For survival the eucalyptus has a natural tendency to resprout after it has been cut back or environmentally damaged. Usually within three to six weeks new sprouts will appear. It is suggested to keep two to four of the largest and more erect sprouts while removing the others. This will give those remaining sprouts the opportunity of being satisfactorily nourished. These new sprouts in reality are new trees growing from a mature root system.181
 
The proper time for cutting eucalyptus for lumber and firewood is during the rainy season. This way there is enough soil moisture for the stumps to sprout vigorously. After groves have been recut several times, they decrease in rate of growth and yield. One should consider replanting when depreciation is readily noticable.182
 

THE MULTIPLICITY OF USES
 
Eucalyptus serves man well. It has more useful purposes than any other tree on earth. For example, it provides forest cover for any terrain from mountains to swamps. It gives shade and acts as a windbreak. It furnishes gum, resin, oil, and nectar. When cut it is used for fuel, construction, poles, posts, and hardwood products. The eucalyptus even has the reputation of improving the climate in which it grows.183 It has been proclaimed to be "The Tree of California."184
 
In its native land of Australia, the eucalyptus was found in virgin forests and provided the settler with a multitude of products from firewood to strong timbers. It was used in the manufacture of ships, bridges, railroad ties, railroad vehicles, wagons, furniture, agricultural implements, paving blocks, barrels, poles, piles, and posts.185 It was used just like hickory, oak, and ash in the United States.

It was found in Australia that blue gum wood used inside railroad cars lasted at least twenty years. Such use requires elasticity, strength, and durability. A house was
built in Toowoomba from eucalyptus and was still in excellent condition after thirty years. A bridge crossing the Dawson River containing eucalyptus girders and piles, forty years later was as strong as when first built.186 Eucalyptus wood can be as hard as iron and as durable if it receives proper treatment.
 
Eucalyptus has been used in place of mothballs, to scour out boilers, in various medicines, pulp for paper, and in landscaping. Today it is used also as biomass fuel, ply- wood, charcoal, and as an alcohol substitute in gasoline engines.187 It also is being used to drain waste water to eliminate soil salinity.188 (Even the Israelis have used eucalyptus trees surreptitiously to mark Syrian targets.189 In Mexico, marijuana and poppy growers have used eucalyptus to hide their illegal crops.)190 There are so many uses for eucalyptus that it is like the proverbial pig where everything is used except the oink. In the case of the eucalyptus, everything is used except the noise from its rattling leaves and someone might find a use for that with new technology.
 

AS FOREST COVER
 
Eucalyptus provides valuable forest cover which can become especially thick if not maintained properly. Ellwood Cooper was the first to recognize its potential as a forest cover and discussed it at some length in his lecture at Santa Barbara College in 1870.  He planted eucalyptus on a massage scale at his Santa Barbara ranch,
beginning with 50,000 trees in 1872. He planted seedlings on hillsides, in canyons, on ocean bluffs, and flatlands. Cooper planted them not just for forest cover but for wind-breaks, shade for roads, for timber and firewood. In 1900, he had 200 acres of eucalyptus forest of various species which was a showcase to interested public. McClatchie wrote in Out West in 1904:
     One can stroll through his groves as through primeval forests. In the canons, Eucalypts  twenty-five years old tower high above oaks that have been growing there for over  two centuries. On hillsides that were formerly bare are dense forests in which ferns  and other shade-loving plants find a home. Wind-swept plains that formerly gave small  returns in the crops to which they were planted yield abundantly since they have been  sheltered by groves of Eucalypts. For over a score of years Mr. Cooper has been  reaping the reward of his foresight. Besides enjoying the beauty, the shade, and the  shelter of his grove, he has received from them directly a good financial return for his  expenditure.191
 

FOR FIREWOOD AND BIOMASS FUEL
 
Using wood as fuel for heating and cooking is as old as man. Because of its rapid growth, eucalyptus became an attractive fuel and was planted for that reason and for that purpose. Today, besides the traditional fireplace or cookstove uses, eucalyptus wood is chipped and used as biomass fuel in the generation of electricity.192
 
It was suggested in a 1903 Scientific American article that because of its rapid growth and size, eucalyptus would replace other fuels such as coal in California. Fuels from petroleum were entering the mass market at this time and soon would replace most wood sources. Still most homes used wood for fuel and industry used wood in its steam engines.193
 
Wood from most eucalyptus species makes good fuel. Groves of five years will produce 50 to 60 cords while groves of ten years will supply 80 to 150 cords. The quality of the soil, irrigation practice, and maintenance will vary the size of the yield. The cost of cutting the grove is determined by the age of the tree and the type of species. In 1908, it took one-half of the market price to cut and stack wood for sale.194
 
For so many years in southern California, firewood came solely from blue gum trees. This area was virtually treeless and eucalyptus groves were planted to service the need. In 1908, this was said about the firewood industry.
     The returns of investments in Eucalyptus  plantations have been generous, in many  cases exceeding those received from equal areas under cultivation in orchards or  agricultural crops. Groves set out in fertile Los Angeles Valley have yielded from 50 to 80 cords per acre at every cutting. Yields of 75 cords per acre every seven or  eight years have been frequent.195
 
In northern California, planting of eucalyptus for firewood before 1900 was not on a large scale because oak was still available. In 1910, it was predicted that oak would vanish as agriculture encroached, and consequently forests of eucalyptus would be needed.196
 
Eucalyptus burns brightly and has a refreshing fragrance. It is equal to oak as firewood and is better than other natural California wood. The best fuel comes from ten
year old trees.
 
It does cost more to saw and split wood from mature trees because of their size and hardness. In 1924, eucalyptus firewood garnered profits of $1.50 to $4 a cord varying according to the condition of the wood, location of the grove, and other contributing factors. On contract, grove owners had wood cut and stacked for $8 to $12 a cord. When sold to the customer in the field, a cord brought $10 to $16, but if delivered, a cord would bring $18 to $24. However, when competing with other wood, eucalyptus  might bring as little as $1 a cord depending upon the distance from the market and the nature of the terrain.197
 
It was reported in 1908 that eucalyptus wood was sold in 96 cubic feet cords, known as the "California cord," rather than the usual standard cord of 128 cubic feet.
Logs were in ten inch lengths rather than the normal eighteen inch lengths and was bought by consumers without much protest.198
 
Because of its high water content, eucalyptus wood would shrink by 15% as is the case with blue gum when seasoned. Eucalyptus wood had to be split quickly after cutting because as it dried it became very tough. Straight-grained species, such as sugar and red gums, usually split without difficulty, but blue gum with its interlocking fibres had to be split immediately. Blue gum too could not be put directly on the ground as it rotted quickly.199
 
During the eucalyptus boom, an eucalyptus cutting industry developed in southern California. Groups of cutters would harvest blue gum on a contract basis. These traveling gangs of woodcutters would saw and split wood at $2 to $3 a cord. The growers would in turn sell the wood for $3 to $8 a cord price varying according to the amount of transportation needed to move the cut wood.200
 
Over the years the University of California, the U.S. Forest Service, and other governmental agencies have done numerous tests on eucalyptus comparing species and comparing eucalyptus to other trees such as oak and hickory. These tests were done to determine eucalyptus' value as a fuel and as timber resource. These tests continue today because of the interest in biomass fuel worldwide.
 
From 1977 to 1984, a growth rate study was done in northern California which found that the eucalyptus species viminalis and camaldulensis grew faster than Monterey pine, walnut, and redwood.201 Another study was taking place at the same time, analyzing the survival and growth characteristics of eucalyptus species. It was found that globulus, camaldensis, dalyrympleana, and clones of camaldulensis were the better species in a foothill environment when under an intensive maintenance program.202
 
The Simpson Timber Company, Tejon Ranch, the U.S. Bureau of Land Management, and U.S. Forest Service's Institute of Forest Genetics collectively ran tests at twelve eucalyptus groves in California concerning the eucalyptus' viability as a fuel for industrial plants. Another part of the study was on quality seed sources. The results were positive as indicated by this remark at Tejon Ranch: "We started growing eucalypts three years ago and so far it looks promising. If the trees are profitable, we'll grow them alongside our other cash crops."203 It was found that blue gums can produce ten tons of dried wood per acre per year. Such a yield comes from fifty foot eucalyptus trees that are about six to ten years old. This same yield would take other hardwoods nearly fifty or more years to produce."204
 
There are many misconceptions as to the quality of eucalyptus firewood. It is felt by some that it doesn't generate as much heat as oak and orchard trees. It is the moisture in the wood that determines heat value. The drier the wood the more heat value it has. Freshly cut wood generally has about 50% moisture content. When dried, moisture content is drops to 10% to 25%. Wood from most eucalyptus species generate heat equal to oak, but orchard wood being denser, generates more heat. But ultimately, it is the heating appliance (stove) that really  decides the degree of heat produced anyway.205
 
The oil shortage of 1973 caused the government to look for alternative sources of energy. It has been suggested that hardwood could be grown on unused federal lands, and this would supply 5.6% of U.S. energy.206 In 1989, there were at least seventeen furnaces in the United States that burned wood or biomass wastes to generate electricity. Some generating stations have explored the possibility of growing their own trees near the stations for less costly harvesting process.207
 
In 1988, Cal-Bio, a biomass firm, had projected the construction of five biomass plants in California and felt that chipped eucalyptus wood could be used. It would take 150 to 200 tons of material each year to fulfill the need. But it was found in a recent study that the cost of harvesting, chipping, and transporting the woodchips would be too costly to justify the investment. One solution was to plant trees nearer the biomass plant and plant more acres.208
 
The estimation of the volume of fuel an eucalyptus tree produces has proven to be difficult to calculate with a great deal of accuracy. In 1974, the California Department of Forestry designed a table to project the yield from blue gum trees, but the table was for trees used as windbreaks and not grown specifically for fuel.  In 1989, another table was developed to remedy the problem.209 It is not easy to predict yield because there are so many variables that can alter production, such as the age of the tree, spacing between trees, weather, soil, pests, and other environmental factors.210
 
The research now is centered on scientifically producing eucalyptus species either through genetics, cloning or seed selection. There is a growing body of scientific literature on the eucalyptus. Recently an eucalyptus organization was formed which is based in Davis, California. Its name is the Eucalyptus Improvement Association, and it publishes numerous studies, reports, a quarterly newsletter, and news of the industry. It is a nonprofit organization consisting of private landowners, farmers, state and federal agencies, university extension, and forest industry personnel.
 
In 1978, the U.S. Department of Energy published a study entitled, "The Eucalyptus Energy Farm." It is a marvelous document providing a wealth of information on running one's own energy farm successfully.
 
An eucalyptus workshop was held in Sacramento, June 14-16, 1983, under the sponsorship of the Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station and the Cooperative Extension at the University of California, Berkeley. Speakers shared their knowledge of species selection, products, uses, economics, growth, yield, cultural requirements, breeding programs, and propagation.211
 
There is a continuing interest in finding new uses for the eucalyptus. At the MIE University of central Japan, for example, eucalyptus-produced fuel was used in a small farm engine. The fuel produced about the same power as gasoline but emitting 50% less carbon monocide. Cost is a factor because it takes $10 to produce a litre (1/5 of gallon) while it costs 60 cents to produce petro.212
 
Eucalyptus is also used to make potash and charcoal. Potash is made by burning wood in pits, leaching the ashes, and evaporating. But in the late 19th century, potassium compounds were found and replaced potash in the making of ceramics, glass, soap, fertilizers, and munitions.213 Eucalyptus produces an excellent grade of charcoal better than most native California wood. One cord of eucalyptus makes 1,000 lbs. of charcoal. To produce charcoal, wood is burned in a kiln for about three weeks. It must be watched constantly which makes it expensive to manufacture.214
 

AS WINDBREAKS
 
Windbreaks are used to reduce the wind's force or velocity to make life more livable for humans, plants, and animals. It reduces soil erosion and limits dust. A home can save 30% of its heating and cooling costs by having a windbreak because it reduces the effect of hot and cold winds. It also provides shade. In regard to crop production, it reduces wind damage to crops thus yields are greater. Windbreaks protect stock improving their condition. Milk cows give more milk, and sheared sheep suffer less. Currently a windbreak could cost $1,500 to $2,000 but the results pay for it.215
 
Blue gum trees make the best windbreak. Some of the other species are too short or they don't have enough foliage to disrupt the wind. When planning a windbreak, it is important to know the wind patterns in the area and to select the proper species. In 1950, it was reported that there were two thousand miles of windbreaks in southern California primarily to protect citrus groves.216
 
Crop protection is vital in California as some agricultural crops would fail without the benefit of eucalyptus windbreaks. This commentary reveals that importance:
 In citrus sections, such as the Santa Paula, San Fernando, San Bernardino, San Gabriel,  and Santa Ana valley, windbreaks alone render the production of citrus fruits profitable. In unprotected orchards, nearly the entire crop is frequently blown from the  trees, or so scarred and bruised that the grade and market value are much reduced. Orchard trees are even broken or partially defoliated during severe storms."217
 
Windbreak trees must be "wind-firm." The eucalyptus has an extensive lateral root system which makes it "wind-firm." Blue gum is a perfect windbreak tree because it has strong root anchorage, a flexible stem (trunk), and foliage that redirects wind. Its foliage does not stop the wind but directs it upward which is ideal for crop protection.218
 
In northern California, eucalyptus windbreaks are used to protect vineyards, nut and fruit trees, vegetables, and grain. As one has observed, "Eucalyptus windbreaks in some sections have changed the aspect of the country, and by moderating the winds have greatly improved climate. Waste and sandy stretches have been turned to productive agricultural use."219 In Oxnard, windbreaks hold in place loose sand which is usually buffeted by strong gusty winds. The sugar beet industry in Oxnard would be non-existent if it weren't for the windbreaks.220 In the Salinas Valley, windbreaks divert winds that could ruin truck farming crops.221
 
Eucalyptus windbreaks protect towns and seaports from damage. In the latter, docked vessels are left secure and unharmed by fierce winds that can hammer the sea
coast. Sand stays in place and does not drift. It is recommended that eucalyptus windbreaks run at right angles every quarter of mile on level ground. Near the foothills, the spacing should be closer together however. To protect orchards, the windbreak rows should have a space every 100 to 200 feet. Heavy winds will sway the upper foliage of a windbreak tree, but the bottom foliage shelters the crops. Windbreaks also help to protect against freezes by cutting back on windchill.222
 
The best spacing for individual trees within a windbreak is four feet in double rows. Double-row configuration is especially good where there are strong winds because it prevents wind leakage. Trees are planted in double rows in an alternating fashion sealing off the holes in the windbreak. It has been found that windbreaks on the north or east sides of an orchard or field is less affective. Usually the south side is left open for wind drainage. It is not uncommon to find where there are strong ocean breezes multiple rows of windbreak trees. Many windbreaks use a combination of Monterey pine and eucalyptus. One has density while the other has height.223
 
Eucalyptus windbreaks should be properly managed. Older trees should be removed because they lack lower foliage which will allow wind to get through. Litter dropped by the windbreak trees should be picked up to protect against fires which can destroy a windbreak.224 Irrigation or watering is needed for a healthy windbreak. Because the eucalyptus needs large amounts of water for growth, adequate watering is essential or the lateral roots from the windbreak trees will rob and stunt the trees that it is protecting. Some growers have dug trenches three to four feet deep between the windbreak trees and the orchard trees to stop lateral root extension.225
 

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Eucalyptus timber has been put to similar uses similar as other hardwood. It has had some success, but it has failed as well. Its failure is really a misconception in the minds of growers and investors. They were expecting too much from the young eucalyptus trees. They were anticipating products like those produced in Australia. The problem was those products came from eucalyptus trees in virgin forests which were several hundred years of age. The quality of the wood from these older trees differs greatly from